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Developments in Aerospace Technology
Here's a brief history of some of the developments in aerospace technology over the last 25 years. Included are examples of what's happening in both the civilian and military fields, and I've provided links to each company as well. I'll update this occasionally.
To see how I'm applying some of these ideas, visit my Projects page.
To see how I'm applying some of these ideas, visit my Projects page.
From NASA, to the Military, then to the rest of us... Things change...
For many years, new developments originating with NASA have filtered down to the military first, then they're finally used in the civilian market. That process has now become a two-way street, thanks to some brilliant design concepts.
In the 1960s, the development of lifting-body aircraft (including the NASA Space Shuttle) and computer hardware speeded things up. Also, there was a major change in military strategies, based on new threats. The focus changed from "higher and faster" to "slower and stealthier". Economic changes in the world no long allowed for limitless spending, so new ideas had to be relatively simple, inexpensive, and reliable. Along with this came the development of new ideas in composite construction. Composites reduce weight, simplify structures (fewer "rivets and panels") strengthen the airframe, and can even make it more stealthy. All this is done with fewer parts, fewer people, and lowered maintenance costs
Burt Rutan, designer of many radical aircraft, including the "Long EZ", "Quickie", "Voyager", and many others, has influenced designers greatly, and changed the way many people think about aerospace. He's now the President of Scaled Composites, and continues to do remarkable work, including the contract for the X-38, a lifting-body design similar to the space shuttle, to be used as a rescue vehicle for astronauts working on the International Space Station.
His methods for designing efficient shapes, building them out of lightweight, strong, low-drag materials, often in record time and at reduced cost, is something that has now filtered back UPstream to the military and NASA, resulting in better aircraft and reduced program costs for everyone.
First, NASA and the military
This is the HIMAT (Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Technology) vehicle, built by NASA in 1979, to test different configurations of the aircraft itself, as well as computer systems, that would give jet fighters more agility. You can see a similarity to the F-16's shape, because it was new, and especially popular fighter during this time. This sub-scale aircraft was one of the first of it's kind to be so sophisticated, thanks to developments at that time with computer hardware. Obviously, this kind of prototyping is a much less expensive (and less dangerous for test pilots) than a full-scale prototype. Many of the things that we think of as "new" today were pioneered at this time... The use of composites, winglet studies, canard-aided super agility,wing/body blending, mixing of various flight controls in different "modes", etc..
As a side-note, it's interesting today that the whole concept of "prototype" has changed. Successful aircraft can now be designed, tested, virtually-assembled, flown and maintained, all before anything physical is built. Finally then, the computer files can go direct to manufacturing machines and automated assembly. There are far fewer people required today on these type of projects. Some aircraft, such as the B2 bomber (below) went directly from computer to production, with no "prototype".
This vehicle also played a part on advancing the "fly-by-wire" flight control system, which assists the pilot in many ways. Today, many aircraft don't even have physical connections between the pilot controls and the various control surfaces. Instead, the planes can be flown in different "modes", (i.e. "Cruise mode", "Air to Air mode", or "Air to Ground" mode) and the computer "interprets" the pilot's inputs. Not only can the computer compensate for flight disturbances much faster and more smoothly than a pilot, but the system can prevent the pilot from over stressing the airframe. As computer hardware and software improve, the aircraft can be reconfigured for different missions.
Behind the scenes, Lockheed Martin, Boeing, and many other companies were working on something new.... Stealth.
Stealth was to become the buzzword of the decade in the military world, and in the image above, you can see the results in the development of stealth design. Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works first started the trend, using a combination of technologies involving both the reflection and absorption of radar waves using the now-familiar flat-plate "faceted" design. The result was the "small" F-117s, shown above, flying in formation with the much larger Northrop B2 Bomber. Northrop was able to discover a way to accomplish even better results using curved surfaces, which are more efficient aerodynamically.
There were many other developments caused by the B2 program aside from stealth. New integrated, computer-networked design and production methods were developed, as well as new automated machines to construct large portions of the aircraft. Variations of this software, such as IBM's "Catia" have become industry-standard tools for large companies, and have diversified from aerospace to automobiles. The result is unprecedented accuracy in the final products. Northrop produces B2 Bombers within a tolerance of approximately 1/4 inch, over the entire 172 foot wingspan, and the structures are quite rigid.
Click on this image to see a larger version.
To illustrate the power of modern computers coupled with "Catia", here's an image of the Boeing 737. The aircraft can be completely designed in this environment, down to the last screw. The data created can then be sent directly to milling machines and even newer machines capable of laminating composites. Boeing has even gone to the extreme of using "virtual humans" in these visualizations, to be sure that future maintenance personel can do what's required. This approach allows troublesome parts to be altered before anything is actually machined, and saves both time and money. This technology can only improve in the future, which will make the physical prototyping process almost obsolete.
As they did with the competition between the YF-16 and YF-17, the military had a "fly off" to determine the next generation of air superiority plane, which would replace the F-15. Northrop/McDonnell Douglas submitted the YF-23 shown here. The YF-22 (developed into the F-22A) below won, and the remaining YF-23 prototypes were placed in NASA's hands for research.
The F-22 is a real leap forward in all areas of design. These changes now seem to be standard requirements for all U.S. aircraft. I've created a precision scale 3D model of this aircraft, which you can see at http://www.mikejamesmedia.com/f_22_01_intro.html.
One thing leads to another...
The F-22A is stealthy. All weapons are carried internally, rather than on wing-mounted racks. (although it can do both) Even the standard-issue "machine gun" is located internally, and pops up momentarily to fire, retracting back behind a door, when not in use. These things have a psychological advantage in air-to-air combat, which is that the enemy cannot tell visually if such an aircraft is "empty" or not, or even what kind of weapons it might be carrying. The aircraft is extremely agile, as are all new aircraft, and actually can take more G forces than the pilots can!
Very large sections of it are made of composites, resulting in lower parts count, better stealth, and better aerodynamics. Thanks to another breakthrough, thrust vectoring in the pitch mode, it can fly slower than any modern fighter, and yet can also cruise faster then the speed of sound without using afterburners. That results in a huge fuel savings, which means that it has much greater range. Take all these factors, and add some of the fastest and most integrated computerized flight and weapons systems, and you have one very hard act to follow!
Boeing, McDonnell Douglas,, and NASA are always moving forward too. Here's the X-36 "Tailess Agility Aircraft" test vehicle. Like the HIMAT above, it's a sub-scale, remotely-piloted, computer-assisted platform that incorporates some remarkable breakthrough technologies. I've created a 3D model of this aircraft, which you can see athttp://www.mikejamesmedia.com/3d_catalog.html.
The aircraft obviously is influenced by the F-22 in overall fuselage shape. The wings are enhanced for both stealth and performance, and the X-36 features a forward surface that contributes in pitch control and braking. Since it doesn't have any vertical tail surfaces, a yaw-based thrust-vectoring system stabilizes it. The program only cost about 20 million dollars, including the construction of two sub-scale aircraft and all the test flights. It was a dramatic success, and you'll see it's influence in the future.
Another thing you might consider (the military is!) is that when you fly an aircraft from a remote position, using computer assistance, you're essentially on a wireless network. The military has quite wisely decided to take advantage of advancements is computer hardware and networking, by designing future fighters (and other weapons) that can operate as manned vehicles, unmanned autonomous vehicles, or even fly as unmanned "wingmen" alongside actual pilots in combat.
In the early 90s, the military had another need, which called for another "flyoff". This time, they were looking for a multi-purpose aircraft to replace several existing designs. The Air Force is looking at replacements for the F-16, the NAVY is looking at replacements for the F-14, and the Marines need to replace the Harrier. Ideally, the right aircraft (possibly with minor modifications) could replace all of them. The program is called "Joint Strike Fighter", or "JSF". Added to the "standard" mission requirements noted above for the F-22, was the ability to take off and land vertically.
Boeing designed and built the X-32, above. It uses the "direct lift" concept, meaning that one engine alone provides the power for both normal flight and vertical takeoff and landing. They accomplished this by simply (!) closing down the tail jet exhaust tube, and using diverter nozzles to redirect the thrust. In tests, it worked perfectly. I've created a 3D model of this aircraft, which you can see at http://www.mikejamesmedia.com/3d_catalog.html.
Lockheed Martin chose a different method with their entry, the X-35, now designated as the "F-35". They chose to use a small shaft-driven lift fan, mounted vertically directly behind the pilot, to provide supplemental thrust for vertical takeoff and landing. The entire rear jet exhaust tube pivots down 90 degrees when in the vertical mode, and over a dozen doors open on various parts of the aircraft to accommodate additional intake air for the forward fan, and thrust diverters. It looks like a science fiction vehicle when it's transitioning, with all those nozzle and door movements. Like the X-32, all systems seemed to function perfectly. In fact, neither Boeing or Lockheed Martin lost a prototype during testing. Pilots for both aircraft said simply that "the aircraft flew just like the simulator". (They had both spent hundreds of hours in simulators before the actual flights.) For reasons unknown to me, the Lockheed Martin entry won the Joint Strike Fighter contract, and it remains to be seen what will happen to Boeing's X-32. Both programs were hugely successful, regardless.
This aircraft, just made public in October of 2002, has apparently been flying secretly since 1996! Boeing announced it as the "Bird of Prey". It too has apparently accomplished it's program goals, and done so at the remarkably low cost of 67 million dollars total, including at least 38 official test flights. It's specific role in the future is unknown to me, but you can see how the accomplishments of the previous aircraft above have influenced the design.
Another image of Boeing's "BOP"
Visit the Boeing Phantom Works site and the NASA Aeronautics Research site to keep up with more new developments.
Visit the Boeing Phantom Works site and the NASA Aeronautics Research site to keep up with more new developments.
Click the image above to visit this NASA site.
Some might consider this "coming full circle" with aviation technology, because in a way, it mimics what birds do. NASA is working on a type of construction and control system that might allow future aircraft to physically change shape, for different flight modes. The same technology could be used to allow parts of the aircraft to move, without hinges and their associated gaps, drag, etc.. a "morphing" plane. It would include imbedded "smart" sensors inside structures, adaptive control systems, etc..
Click the image above to visit this NASA site.
I really like this project, simply because I think the design concepts presented have been interesting. NASA envisions a time when inexpensive, safe, and fast air transportation might be available for almost everyone, and is addressing all the associated issues. These include a nearly foolproof flight control system, heads-up display, efficient aerodynamics, better propulsion, "smart airports", and many others. Part of this effort is directed at solving congestion at both small and large airports, and by planning "smart routes", avoiding bad weather, other traffic, and common delays caused by waiting in lines.
On to the civilian uses of this technology...
As civilians, we don't need stealth, but we can certainly benefit from advances in composite construction. We don't need to conceal weapons, but we can benefit from carrying all of our payload inside aircraft with lower drag. We don't need autonomous computer systems, but improved flight control and topnavarea systems are always helpful. And finally, like the rest of the world, we could all benefit from less expensive, lighter, stronger aircraft with more range and payload carrying ability. Here are some applications of those ideas.
Another design by Burt Rutan, the "Pond Racer". (I created this image, and omitted the two propellers at the front of the booms, for clarity.) The original file was painstakingly created by Scott Black, as a study for an RC project.
Piaggio of Italy incorporated many slick ideas into their "Avanti" P-180. I've created a precision scale 3D model of this aircraft, which you can see athttp://www.mikejamesmedia.com/3d_catalog.html. ( Or, see my article on the construction of a physical (Radio-controlled) model on my Avanti page.)
They adopted a new shape, in a joint venture with Lear, and to keep the shape as smooth as possible, adopted a novel construction method. The "Avanti" is NOT made of composites! Instead, huge sections of the outer skin are held in a large vacuum-operated jig, while the formers are riveted to the inside! This results in an almost perfectly smooth exterior, which reduces drag. Also, due to the fuselage shape, which is itself a lifting body, Piaggio was able to achieve laminar flow over a remarkable 60 percent of the surface.
They adopted a new shape, in a joint venture with Lear, and to keep the shape as smooth as possible, adopted a novel construction method. The "Avanti" is NOT made of composites! Instead, huge sections of the outer skin are held in a large vacuum-operated jig, while the formers are riveted to the inside! This results in an almost perfectly smooth exterior, which reduces drag. Also, due to the fuselage shape, which is itself a lifting body, Piaggio was able to achieve laminar flow over a remarkable 60 percent of the surface.
This is not a "canard" aircraft, (where the "canard" would control the pitch) but rather a "3 lifting surface" design. The elevators on the horizontal stabilizer (an inverted airfoil) still control the pitch, while the foreplane is equipped with slotted flaps, which are deployed along with the wing's flaps, for takeoff and landing. The nacelles are area ruled, to reduce drag. The aft fuselage incorporates twin ventral fins, which produce virtually no drag at cruise, yet help stabilize the plane and prevent stall, at slow airspeeds. The main wing, engine and propeller locations all contribute not only in reducing drag, but in making the cabin both more spacious and quiet. Performance is spectacular compared with others in it's class, and you can pick one up for around 4 million dollars.
Walter Extra, designer of the well-known "Extra 300" series of aerobatic monoplanes, also designed this, the "Extra 400". It's a low drag, fast-flying, pressurized single-engine airplane that shows us what to expect of the future.
Adam Aircraft Industries is producing the Adam A-500, a twin-engine 5-passenger aircraft, made of composites, which is sure to be a good performer. Adam Aircraft was involved in the AGATE/SATS program, and is also promoting a jet version of a similar design. Lancair was also involved in AGATE/SATS program.
This is the Atlantica BWB. Those of you familiar with Rutan's "Long EZ" will appreciate this effort to expand on that platform, and incorporate design elements similar to Boeing's "BWB" (Blended Wing Body) airliner concept. It's designed to carry 5 passengers. This image shows the actual size male plugs, from which they made their molds for the first prototype.
This plane was "test-flown" on a personal computer-based flight simulator called "X-Plane", by Austin Myer, before actually being flown. This "high-tech" simulator package can be bought today for less than $100 !
The concept of the future Atlantica BWB is for it to be powered by a small, inexpensive turbofan. The prototype will first fly with a pusher propeller setup, then testing will move to the jet version.
October 2004
(Scaled Composites photo)
Congratulations to Burt Rutan and the entire Scaled Composites team, for winning the Ansari X Prize! SpaceShipOne flew to over 360,000 feet, after a safe launch, re-entered safely as planned, and made a beautiful touchdown and Mojave Spaceport. On the way down, it was escorted (below 40,000 ft.) by another Burt Rutan design, the Beech Starship, along with a Dornier Alpha Jet, and an Extra 300, trailing smoke, all in formation. It was a beautiful sight, and the program is apparently a huge success. For more information on the design and the program, visit the Scale Composites web site, and have a look at information relating to the 10 million dollar Ansari X Prize,
